VOCAL-Ease.html

Vocal-Ease

newly revised - 2022


Foreword

• There are two reasons for studying vocal technique. The first is to correct a problem which inhibits or restricts a singer's performance. The second is to add new dimensions to an already workable technique. In either case, a teacher is necessary. The purpose of this material is to acquaint you with certain aspects of vocal technique which will be helpful when you go looking for your first voice teacher, or for a new one.
Our world is very diversified, and it is often a problem selecting a teacher who will be right for you. Styles in today's music differ so radically, that a voice teacher must have an extremely flexible approach or method. Some teachers lack this freedom or flexibility. If you have some basic knowledge of vocal techniques yourself, you will be able to locate a teacher who will benefit you.
Imitation ( copying sounds and styles of other singers ) is extremely important, but there is no substitute for a good teacher.
The information on my website
https://dennisparnell.net/dp - these are mp3 recordings of a piano playing a number of basic vocal exercises

This booklet is provided only as an aid, to arouse your curiosity, and to expand your knowledge. It is almost impossible to learn to sing correctly without feedback from a knowledgeable teacher and many hours of diligent practice. Armed with this knowledge, you will be able to find that special teacher or coach and begin your studies with enough basic information to avoid confusion.

Introduction


  •For years, singing teachers have shrouded themselves and their techniques with a certain mystique. Today, this situation is changing, but it still exists to some extent. There is really no mystery where good singing is concerned. Poor singing is usually due to incomplete knowledge. A good teacher can guide a student toward more complete knowledge through example and intelligent application of exercise. A voice teacher is usually contracted via personal recommendation. Some voice teachers advertise; other's don't. Word of mouth is usually excellent advertising, but the teacher's best ads are his pupils. If it is possible to hear a number of singers who study with the same teacher, you can usually make a good evaluation of the teacher's ability. There are many different methods of teaching vocal technique. Some of these techniques work for some people; some do not. Knowing what you, the singer, need or desire to learn will make finding the right teacher much easier.
For instance, if you are a pop singer, you may not want to learn operatic arias. A flexible teacher will not impose upon you, requiring you to learn things you don't need or wish to use. But a good teacher will give you the tools necessary to sing any kind of music with the proper style and/or sound.
    There are many "singing teachers" who are often only pianists. They can "coach" you to sing with the correct style, but are often not equipped to help you solve problems of a purely vocal nature. (There are coaches who may know as much or more about vocal technique as some of the so-called voice teachers, however.) Teachers of vocal technique need not be fantastic singers either, but they can usually demonstrate the techniques they teach. Those who cannot leave themselves open to question. Often, there is a simple or sincere answer: "Well my dear, I just turned ninety-five, and I'm not quite up to singing those high C's anymore," or, "I never could sing that note well, but I've taught it successfully to everyone of my pupils. I'll have one of them show you how it should sound."
Be wary of the teacher who has had to stop singing because of vocal nodules or similar problems caused by singing. This teacher certainly wasn't doing it right himself, and may still be passing on information which could be harmful.
Perhaps the best way to "check out" a teacher is to shop around. Audition teachers. Listen to several of them before coming to a decision. Ask to audit four or five of the teacher's lessons. As you observe, ask yourself if questions are being answered in language you can understand, or does the teacher use vague terms or foreign languages you don't understand? Are the students all advanced, or are there beginners as well? Do they all make a similar sound? Do you notice similar techniques working for the beginners as well as the advanced? Is the teacher putting on a show for you? Do you mind? Does the student taking a lesson mind? Does the teacher use the same formula for all students or are exercises and music tailored for each individual? Can you learn from this person?
The most important information you need is how your voice works. There are many fine books available in the library which describe the mechanics of vocalism in detail. At the end of this booklet, you will find a short list of books and articles you may find helpful when you need more precise information. You should also be familiar with the rather confusing multi-lingual terms which make up the jargon of singers and singing teachers: "on the breath," "support," "singing with the diaphragm," "pure vowels," "head voice," "chest voice," "legato," "falsetto," etc.
    At the end of this booklet, we will define some of these terms. If more complete definitions are needed, there are several books which have extensive chapters on definitions: these will also be listed at the end.
In the past, where singing is concerned, science has often confused issues more than clarified them. However, recent scientific investigation is proving more helpful to the singer. MRI studies, new tools such as the flexible laryngoscope, computer and analog studies are leading to some more logical postulations concerning vocal registers and other factors unique to singing. Still, voice production remains a highly subjective matter. As such, there are many differing approaches and techniques which seem to work, and until science can say with finality "this is how it is done," we sill have to be satisfied with these empirical approaches and subjective techniques.
    Without knowledge and operational techniques, the act of singing will still be somewhat of a mystery, but for anyone who wishes to invest time, find a good teacher, and diligently practice, the mystery will become less puzzling and more rewarding every day. The following sections, hopefully, will add to your present knowledge and begin to give you some concrete information about some of the processes in singing.

Vocal Cords (or Vocal Bands)


  •Your vocal cords (also called vocal bands or vocal folds) are highly elastic pearly-white membranes in your Adam's apple (properly called the larynx). They contain many muscle fibers, which, like all muscles, can be contracted or relaxed. They are consciously controlled, and may work individually or together, as a single unit, or as separate units (somewhat like the muscles in your tongue - which can "flatten out," "bunch up," "thicken," or "thin," etc.) Besides making sound, your vocal cords serve another purpose. They act as a valve that keeps foreign substances from entering your lungs. (Hiccuping activates the vocal chords in this function.)
Also located in the larynx are the "false" vocal cords)
epiglottis and vocal cords
    The space between the vocal cords and the false cords is called the ventricle. The diagram will show you the vocal cords, the ventricle, and the false cords.
This system is a double valve protection for your lungs. The false cords add enough muscle to help you expel mucus on other foreign substances from the windpipe. We do this when coughing. Since we can't open the necks of great singers to watch their muscle coordination while they are singing, there is still much conjecture about singing technique as it applies to muscular functions. It is certainly safe to assume that control and coordination of certain groups of opposing muscle systems, as well as good control of the muscles, or groups of muscle fibers within each vocal chord, are necessary prerequisites for good singing over several octaves without "breaks."
    Many beginners or singers with inadequate techniques have not discovered how to isolate certain groups of muscles from one another as they practice. In some people, some of these groups of muscles are weak; other people have other muscle weaknesses. Usually, we get years of vocal practice, speaking within a rather limited range of musical notes (usually in the "chest" or lower register) before we ever decide to become singers.
    Muscle coordination in the speaking area is usually good, allowing for a large dynamic range. However, in order to increase the muscle range of the singing instrument, muscle must both be flexible and strong enough to withstand the added air pressure of loud singing as well as the rigors of extra stretching necessary to reach the high notes with an acceptable sound (timbre).
It is the coordinated effort of both strength and flexibility that makes a good singer. Our vocal cords are extraordinary instruments, but there are no absolute rules about how they work; that is, there are so many minute muscular variations possible, we must assume there are as many singing techniques.
They work -- and they don't.
It was precisely this reason which led to the creation of this work, "Vocal-Ease". Certain exercises can be used to add range and flexibility. Others tend to be useful to build strength. Over-doing one type of exercise can lead to an imbalance.
    Good teachers usually let you know the purpose of the exercises you are doing. Many exercises do not sound good or "correct," but it is usually necessary to stumble through new muscle processes before reaching a state of coordination, which sounds better.
    There also exercises that address themselves to specific problems such as too much air pressure, limited range, limited air pressure, "breaks," etc. Some of these types of exercises sound horrible at first. Usually, these are exercises that add brightness to an otherwise dull sounding tone. They are often "high larynx" exercises (The "Jerry Lewis" voice). Your neighbors won't appreciate these, especially late at night. The purpose of these exercises is to help isolate and strengthen the weaker range of your voice, which usually occurs above the highest "normal" speech inflections. These exercises are especially helpful to female pop singers who must sing in the middle and lower registers, or range, and to male singers who wish to cultivate an easier production of high notes. The exercises also help connect registers by changing the air pressure/vocal cord ratio.
WARNING: Many teachers are not familiar with these exercises, and have been taught that singing with a high larynx is not good (or even dangerous).
    This would certainly be true where songs and arias are concerned, but not as a training exercise to isolate certain sets of muscles. The problem with the exercises is that they create a constricted vocal tract - on purpose. There is a good reason for allowing this to happen. Recent scientific data confirms that the larynx that doesn't appreciably move while singing is generally not bothered by problems of registration. This does not mean that there should be rigidity in the vocal tract, rather only the most minimal movement of the larynx.
    We do not under any circumstance, recommend singing with a high larynx, except in certain styles or circumstances such as a "character voice." We do recommend utilizing a tool which will allow the singer to experience singing scale passages and melodies with little or no movement in the larynx. This is often of great value to "belters," or singers who have never experienced singing with a mixture in their higher range. As coordination improves, the sound may be mellowed and the larynx lowered into it's normal singing position. These exercises are also used to add intensity to the "pure " falsetto, allowing it to "mix" with the notes of the lower register.
    The theory is that the vocal cords are allowed to be pulled closer or held together more tightly with the help of several groups of constricting muscles (the inferior constrictor ( one of the "swallowing" muscles ), lateral crico-arytenoid, transverse arytenoid, posterior crico-arytenoid). This, in turn, allows the vocal cord to vibrate over its full length in a range which would normally have to be sung as falsetto with some portion of the vocal cord not participating in the vibration, or the cord not completely closing, creating a breathy tone. Ventriloquists have used this brassy sound for hundreds of years, with few vocal problems.
1. Dr. J. Large: Vocal Symposium; Victor Fields article
2. Venard: Technic Book; Dr. Hans von Leden: Conversation, 1981

The Larynx

Larynx muscles
(click on the above -  a diagram on line of the larynx and its surrounding muscles and cartilages)
   •If you look at a diagram of the "larynx", you will see a cartilage at the top of the windpipe called the cricoid, or ring cartilage. Attached to the rear of the cricoid cartilage are two other cartilages which function like levers, called the arytenoid cartilages. Functionally; the arytenoid cartilages and their associated muscles pull the vocal cords together for phonation, and pull them apart and away from each other so that a person can inhale. The Adam's apple, called the thyroid cartilage, fits over and around the cricoid cartilage. It is attached to the cricoid by two somewhat loose joints, which allow the thyroid to "slip" or rock forward and down when pulled by the appropriate muscles (sterno-thyroid). Your vocal cords are also attached to the front part of the thyroid cartilage. When the sterno-thyroid muscle contracts, it pulls the thyroid cartilage forward and down, causing your vocal cords to be stretched, tightened and "thinned" (much like the stretching or elongation of your bicep when you extend your arm).
The elongation and thinning of the vocal cords is of the extreme importance if you are a singer. To demonstrate the lowering and tilting action, place your index finger at the top of your Adam's apple and yawn. At the beginning of the yawn, you will probably feel your larynx being pulled down (and perhaps forward). Normally, at the end of the yawn, most people feel some rigidity above the Adam's apple. This is usually caused by some of the powerful tongue muscles, which, unfortunately, are able to push the larynx down from above.
Many singers utilize this technique to darken or "cover" their tones. If overdone, this technique can be detrimental; it indicates that too much air pressure is forcing the larynx up and the muscles which pull the larynx down can not handle the load. Eventually, the use of too much reinforcement with the tongue muscle can lead to a wobble, or a straight vibrato-less tone. (A little reinforcement for a very loud note is all right, as long as it doesn't become the rule.
In the long run, it is better to strengthen the pulling muscles - they will indicate when there is an overload because the singer's vibrato will most likely slow down.
These downward pulling muscles can be activated (other than by yawning) by imitating a phony sounding "attention-getting" little cough. If you put your thumb and index finger on either side of your Adam's apple and imitate this gentle coughing activity, you will notice that your larynx has been pulled down (as with yawning) but it stays anchored in the low position while you are creating air pressure underneath the vocal chords by coughing. Coughing itself is a rather violent activity for the vocal cords, so this must be done gently.
If you begin speaking immediately after this light coughing exercise, your larynx will probably rise immediately. This is simply habit. Try keeping the larynx anchored in its lower position while singing or speaking a few notes. The result will most likely sound low, hollow, and breathy. This is caused by stretching the vocal cords. Since you have stretched them, it is also more difficult to make them flex at the same time (much as it is difficult, at first, to flex your bicep when your arm is fully extended.)
It is the coordination of both of these activities which most teachers try to accomplish - flexing and stretching at the same time - as this allows less air pressure to be built up under the vocal cords (there is less muscular mass in the stretched/flexed position muscle than in the flexed-only muscle) and singing becomes "easier".
When a beginner first lowers his larynx, his reaction is usually negative, or at least. "…With all due respect, sir, I can't sing like this." The lowering of the larynx creates a hollow, rather moronic sound when overdone, and the coordination usually takes a while to refine. This sound is hollow and "low" sounding because the larynx has been pulled down, creating a larger resonating chamber above it; the vocal cords have been stretched and more air is uncontrollably passing by them.
Stretching the vocal cords in this manner is not common to many forms of American English. Consequently, these exercises can be very frustrating, as the larynx will tend to rise into a higher, more "normal" position of speech at the beginning of an exercise or sung tone. Changing the muscle pattern itself takes time and practice, and the hollow sound being produced is rather strange feedback.
It is the feeling of vocal ease which accompanies these exercises which should be considered feedback. The air flows more easily past the stretched vocal cords than it would if the cords were in a flexed, thicker configuration. Visualization of the bicep as a single vocal cord is helpful, as this muscle, and the control of it, are familiar to us all. Transference of this knowledge seems to help students apply the lowering of the larynx more quickly, and the quicker that the excess air pressure is eliminated, the better off a singer is.
Exercises which raise the larynx in a higher than normal speech position are also useful in the elimination of excess air pressure. The sound produced is not the useful feedback - it is the ease of singing notes outside the normal range which makes these exercises effective tools. Just as the lowering of the larynx creates (eventually) a more sonorous sound, the raising of the larynx creates a more intense sound and can be of help in overcoming breathiness.
The exercises, which change the timbre (quality) of the voice, are, or may serve as "primaries" in learning vocal production. When singers become too extravagant, tiring their voices, these exercises may also be used to reestablish better muscle coordination, allowing the singer to sing more easily again.

Breathing


  •"Breathing is the secret of good singing." This is heard almost as often as "Sing from the diaphragm!"
In a way, it is true that breathing is the secret of good singing, but what exactly does that mean? Basically, it means how you breathe OUT. The control of air pressure from your lungs against the vocal chords is the primary "secret" of good singing, and all of us, with a little practice, can master the coordination of breath control and singing tone. I quote here from the book "Voice-Speech-Language Clinical Communicology : It's Physiology and Pathology" by Richard Luchsinger and Godfrey E. Arnold
(page 149):
DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING: Once again the widespread fallacy of speaking with, or from the diaphragm should be mentioned here. As explained in the first chapter, the diaphragm is an inspiratory muscle. During its inspiratory contraction, its dome-shaped convexity is lowered. Through this pumping effect, air is drawn into the lungs. Expiration is accomplished chiefly by contracting the external abdominal muscles, which push the relaxed diaphragm upward during expiration so that the lungs are compressed and emptied. It is good to remember the following points. The diaphragm is inactive during expiration, be it silent or phonic. Since it lacks proprioceptive sensation (it is unaware of itself) the movements of the diaphragm cannot be felt. Since it is extended horizontally between the lungs and the intestines, the diaphragm cannot be seen from the outside. When the chest goes up, the diaphragm is pushed up passively. It is nonsense when some naive voice teacher proudly taps his inflated chest, proclaiming, "Look at my strong diaphragm." Notice that the diaphragm contracts when you inhale and relaxes when you exhale!!
Now, go find something heavy and lift it. (Piano, sofa, filled suitcase, barbell, etc.) Be aware of two things as you lift: your throat and your abdominal muscles. Put the object down for a moment. Did you continue to breathe normally as you lifted the object? If so, you already have some knowledge of breath control. If not, you probably tightened your body and throat noticeably.
For good breath control, you must learn to let the vocal cords "sphincter" or "muscle up" a bit, i.e. over-contracting, and closing your entire throat as you contract your abdominal muscles. Then you must allow yourself to "let loose" a little at a time, until the vocal cords are freely vibrating and the air feels as though it is "Flowing" from the throat. Like switching when rubbing the stomach and patting the head, this coordination may be difficult to master at first, but after some practice, it will come easily.
To see just how naturally the abdominal muscles and the vocal tract work together, have a friend hit you in the stomach. Not only do your stomach (abdominal) muscles contract, but your throat shuts off as well. This is a natural protective device to keep the internal organs from being injured.
Singers call this coordinated muscular synergy "support." Singing with too much of this throat constriction (or "over-support") is a habit which must be modified. There are several ways to decrease this sphincter-like action in the throat. Go back to that heavy object and lift it again. This time, talk to someone (or yourself) while lifting. If your throat feels tight, talk with a more breathy tone, and if possible, try and make it not only breathy, but slow dumb, and moronic sounding (lowered larynx). Sing a scale while lifting the object. It takes a bit of practice to get used to feeling the abdominal muscles in the state of contraction while you are using the throat for unrestricted speaking or singing, and coordination may prove troublesome at first, but the use of varying degrees of this abdominal tightness (or tautness) will allow you to sing strongly and yet freely. Most singers refer to this kind of abdominal muscle contraction as "support." With abdominal muscles very tightened (as though someone were about to hit you), sing an upward scale, somewhat softly. If your throat doesn't "sphincter" shut, you will probably be able to sing slightly higher in your "chest" or normal voice than you normally do. Why?
Because you have reduced the air pressure underneath the vocal cords. Another effective way to accomplish this is to exhale almost all the air out of your lungs, then try to sing that difficult phrase with the high notes. (Or just the high note alone) The higher notes will often prove to be easier. Excess air pressure is the primary enemy of good singing.
Sometimes, a singer is so used to excess air pressure that it is difficult to convince him that he is making enough sound when a normal, healthy balance is reached. Tape recorders are very helpful in these cases. If you are a person who sings loud and has a limited range, you probably are using too much air pressure. Usually a combination of exercises using tightened abdominal muscles (support) and the raucous sounding high larynx exercises bring the quickest relief. Adding breathiness also works to some extent.
High larynx exercises are useful here because the larynx is already being pushed up by too much air pressure from underneath the vocal cords, many unnecessary muscles are contracting, constricting the vocal tract, so the singer might as well rest the larynx on the bone at the base of the tongue (hyoid bone). Since the larynx cannot rise any further, the constricted unnecessary muscles usually relax, and higher notes can be reached more easily. Usually, a great deal of relief is experienced by "belters" and shouters when the larynx is allowed to rise and the sound allowed to rise and the sound allowed to radically " thin out." There is still plenty of volume, but the singer cannot believe that the raucous sound being made could be of any use or help at all. The usual reaction is "Are you kidding?" For people who tend to abuse their voices, any way of relieving excess air pressure is a beginning. Once air pressure is reduced, exercises to lower the larynx and improve the quality of the sound can be introduced. We'll explore that in class.
Air pressure can be changed in two ways: either by changing tension in the vocal cords themselves (as in the lowered larynx exercises already discusses) or with the exercises which change the vocal cord/abdominal muscle coordination. An effective demonstration of abdominal muscle contraction and the resulting change of breath pressure against the vocal cords is to sing arpeggio or scale passage up to a high note, quickly bending over from the waist just before reaching the high pitch. This will often "free" a constricted throat by a sudden change in air pressure, and the high note will be produced more easily.
To further increase your understanding of this process, take a big breath, hold it in your lungs with your vocal chords, and now attempt to talk without allowing any breath to escape (obviously, some breath must be used). Take another breath. Tighten your abdominal muscles and keep them extra tight now open your throat as though you were going to yawn. Don't yawn, but speak quietly. If you have succeeded, and the speaking tone is mellow and soft and does not feel constricted in your throat, you are using the singer's breath control ("support"). Try singing a scale, tightening the abdominal muscles as you sing higher. You will learn through practice just how much contraction is needed to help you. Too much rigidity is just as bad as too little. Contraction of the abdominal muscles changes the flow of air because it restricts the action of the muscles, which cause the diaphragm to push the air out of the lungs.
If you fill a balloon half full of water, hold it with one hand at its opening, and use the other hand to squeeze the lower half of the balloon. The water will be quickly displaced into the upper portion of the balloon as your hand comes together in a fist. The squeezing is no problem and the water offers minimal resistance. It is much the same with the air in your lungs when you sing. The vocal cords, if working properly, do not offer a lot of resistance to the air flowing by them. It is very easy to use too much air pressure without even knowing if there is a problem. The only indication to the singer is usually an inability to sing high pitches using "full" voice. The vocal cords cannot stretch enough to make the higher pitches because too much air is pushing against them, and rather than fight a steady stream of highly compressed air, the vocal cords simply release some of the bundles of muscle fiber used to make pitch. The voice breaks; the pitch goes somewhat sharp and is tuned back down to the correct pitch, but now in "falsetto" or "head voice." (Like leaning into a strong wind, only to fall down as the wind suddenly stops blowing.)
As a rule, when a singer attempts to sing a high note with too much air pressure, the voice simply cracks and breaks into another register. The singer must learn to either decrease the flow of air from his lungs or change the air compression above the vocal cords in order to create a favorable acoustical situation, which helps to decrease the pressure under the cords. Back to our water-filled balloon if you stiffen the muscles in the squeezing hand, you will notice that you cannot squeeze as fast. As a matter of fact, you can actually control the speed of the squeezing by the corresponding amount of muscular rigidity in your hand. By tightening the abdominal muscles, you may control the amount of air being pushed out of your lungs. This takes practice, but the resulting control is invaluable to all singers. By imposing this exterior tension, you generally reduce the amount of unnecessary muscle tension at the vocal cord level and at the larynx. Since the abdominal muscles are much larger and stronger than the muscles of the larynx and throat, restricting their activities (abdominal muscles) will allow the smaller muscles of the vocal tract to carry on with greater efficiency. This allows you to sing better, using exact predetermined amounts of air pressure and vocal cord tension.
A change in the flow of air beneath the vocal cords will allow more flexibility and vocal color, but this technique of abdominal support is always "guess work." There are also exercises to change the flow of air above the vocal cords. These are most helpful in dealing with severe breaks or register shifts in the voice. These are discussed later with the explanations of the exercises on line. These are the real creators of "support," which is a result of proper air compression above and below the cords.

Ratios

    •A garden hose with the common, twisting nozzle might be used as an analogy to the vocal tract. The faucet where you turn on the water corresponds to your abdominal muscles, the water to the air in your lungs, the hose to the vocal tract, and the nozzle to the vocal cords. If the nozzle is opened all the way, a thick stream of water results. (The analogous sound is the lowered larynx sound.) If there is too much water pressure, and the hose is not reinforced, it is liable to pop or spring a leak. The vocal cords are able to take only so much pressure before they "crack" or pop. Voices, just the same as different brands of hoses, are built to withstand differing amounts of pressure. Some singer's muscles allow them the luxury of singing very loudly and heavily. Other singers have lightweight instruments. Each singer must be aware of his/her physical limitations. The ratios can be changed, but only within the singer's own physical parameters. Much like the garden hose, you can either make a more efficient spray at the nozzle, or you can add water pressure and leave the nozzle the same, or you can walk close to the object being sprayed or any combination of the above. Singing is very much the same. There are infinite variations and combinations open to the singer and teacher: if one way doesn't work, try another. As you learn to balance your instrument, singing with the most effective air/muscle ratio, you can begin to add weight (air pressure) as your muscles become stronger. Just as a weight lifter learns to lift more and more, the singer can add a certain amount of depth and volume to the sound of his voice as the years go by. Unfortunately, many singers don't take the time to establish this fine-tuned balance before they go out to perform. A few years or tours later, they wonder why they are having vocal problems. A singer's voice should continue to sound free (and perhaps better) as he grows older. Singers who risk using too much air pressure too often pay a heavy price, and singers of rock music have to be especially careful, as the styles of music they sing often demand vocal production which is less than ideal. Singing with the improper ratio of air/muscle is usually easy to identify. High notes sound or feel like shouting or yelling. The larynx is usually being forced upward or held rigidly downward. Veins in the neck protrude. The top range is usually limited. Breaks in registers occur. Faces get red. Hoarseness occurs. Eventually, a raspiness or extra, non-musical sound appears in the voice (Janis Joplin, Joe Cocker, Axel Rose, etc). If technical problems are not corrected at this point (it is sometimes already too late), permanent damage can result in some form of contact ulcers or vocal nodules.

Vibrato  -  vibrato.mp3

video about vibrato

another video about vibrato (Rodger Love)

another video about vibrato

one more (Justin Stoney)

correction about Justin Stoney's use of the word Hertz (Hz) - hertz is a measure of a pitch - oscillation would have been better to describe the sound of the slight "wobbling" of vibrato 

      • In order to sing both loudly and freely, singers rely on the oscillation of tone, which we call vibrato. This is an up-and-down movement of pitch; the top being the actual pitch and the oscillation is to a semitone (half step) below. A vibrato usually pulses between five and seven times per second. Slower than five pulses is called a wobble. Faster than seven is referred to as a tremolo. Some people "have" vibrato naturally; others do not and must cultivate it. Different styles of music demand slightly different uses of vibrato technique. Operatic style requires a steady vibrato between six and seven pulses per second. A steady oscillating tone is the ideal. The steadier the oscillation, the more pleasing it is. Straight tones are usually made for artistic effects, if at all.
    Vibrato for musical theatre varies from singer to singer. A straight tone is usually acceptable at the beginning of a sustained tone as long as it begins to vibrate within a short time. Pop music is full of straight tones. Words are more important than tonal production.
     Pop singers often cultivate (or attempt to cultivate) a straight, vibrato-less tonal production as part of their "style." Needless to say, there are few pop singers who sing straight tones all the time --- no one would be able to listen for too long. Almost all pop singers use some sort of vibrato or oscillation in their sustained tones. Using vibrato allows the singer to adjust a slightly out-of-tune sustained note without the listener being aware of the adjustment Straight tones must be sung in tune. The oscillation of the vibrato makes "in tune" a rather flexible concept. Another reason for the use of vibrato is simply muscular freedom. Sustained muscle contraction is very difficult: a slight oscillating movement is easier and the sound is esthetically more pleasing in our Western culture. If you are a singer who does not have a vibrato, but wishes to cultivate one, the easiest way to begin is with a wobble (a very slow up-and-down movement from pitch to pitch). Having a metronome helps because you can check your progress accurately. If your throat is too tight or restricted, you will find the vibrato difficult to execute at first. If this is the case, then a very wide pitch wobble (like yodeling) often helps get rid of the constriction. This exercise should also be practiced wobbling the voice one whole tone above the desired pitch. This is extremely helpful in mending register breaks. It sometimes takes months before oscillation being practiced begins to seem natural and the vibrato works "by itself." Learning a vibrato takes practice and more practice. Once in a while, a singer will constrict his throat so strongly that even the wide wobbling of a pitch will not make a satisfactory vibrating sound. In this case, get your friend again, have him make a fist, place it on your abdomen and while you sing a tone, pump the fist gently in and out. If your abdominal muscles are not too tense, the rapid change in air pressure against the vibrating vocal cords will create a "vibrato" of sorts, and although the vocal tract may still be somewhat rigid, at least it will cause the singer to be aware that a vibrato can be done. After a while, singers with problems like these, usually loosen up enough to begin the pitch wobble.

The eleven "Standard American Vowels"

Video of 11 Standard American Vowels
The Circle of Vowels - diagram

    • The purpose of this chart is to show reasons for beginning some exercises with certain vowels. If you say the word "WAH" and extend it until it sounds like "OOOWAH," you will notice that your lips are making a smaller opening on the vowel "OO." The closer you got to "AH," the farther your lips open (and perhaps your jaw as well). Many novice singers are unaware that slight air compression (or pressure) differences occur while singing: these are caused by the changes in the opening and closing of the lips and the raising and lowering of the tongue and soft palette inside the mouth. Untrained singers usually sing as though the bigger the opening; the more volume is needed---somehow trying to fill up the additional space with more sound. This causes uneven singing, some vowels being sung louder than others. This is hard, not only on the singer's voice, but on the listener's ear as well. Listeners respond to predictable changes in sound levels. Changes which cannot be anticipated cause confusion (or surprise). In music, we tend to respond to "normal" sequential sounds (we can "understand" them) of similar sound pressures. Usually, when a listener is subjected to random changes in sound pressure levels, he cannot predict the next sound or "follow" it, and generally loses interest. In singing, this is often referred to as singing "without line." Exercises to line up the sound-pressure levels of different vowels may be begun on any vowel. Each teacher or "school" seems to have a favorite pattern for this kind of equalizing exercise and there is much disagreement about which method is best. There is, however, no disagreement about singing with a "good line."
  The IPA - International Phonetics Alphabet

Mixing or Covering

Video about "covering"

     •An entire work dealing with this subject is possible. The term "covering" is used by most vocal teachers to mean some sort of change in vowel quality as (or before) a register change takes place. It seems that if the larynx stays put while singing (not rising with the pitch), "covering" or mixing takes place naturally, and there is not too noticeable a change in the quality of the tone. Many Americans do not seem to "cover" naturally. Perhaps this is because we are taught to speak quietly and yell loudly. Reverse this process-yell softly and speak somewhat louder, and the singing voice in its full range becomes available. If it were only so easy! Most untrained ears will tell you that a "covered" vowel is different than an "open" or normal, speech-quality vowel. Perhaps it is easiest to say that a "covered" vowel is a vowel that has been slightly modified in its harmonic content in order to avoid phase cancellation (or, a break in register). There is definitely a subjective recognition of this mixing or covering process and each singer tends to cover at a slightly different points or pitches. Almost every voice has the ability to sing in a heavy register (usually called "chest voice") and a lighter register (sometimes called falsetto, sometimes called "head voice"). It is our opinion that every voice should be taught to mix these two slightly different voice qualities into a "purple zone." If the heavy register is thought of as red, and the lighter register thought of as blue, there is always the possibility of a purple zone. The diagrams will show more than long verbal descriptions, but a few words of interest might be noted: Some teachers treat registration as though it didn't exist, i.e., the entire voice is a purple zone. This is fine if it works for you, but, unfortunately, American voices do not always respond to this single register approach. A single register voice is the ideal. We are usually satisfied with a bit less, which is a red-and-blue voice with a large, moveable purple zone. For example, certain areas of this voice may be sung with varying degrees of red/blue ratios, or all red, or all blue. This kind of singing is usually full of interesting color changes and tonal surprises which may be calculated, artistic choices of the singer. All red or all blue voices are possibilities, but their ranges are by necessity limited. The general rule is that a well-mixed instrument sings better and will last longer, although there are many exceptions to the rule.  Covering, or the lack of it, is (or should be) at the discretion of the singer. More information related to this process will be found in the next chapter and tape on "style."

STYLE --- MAGIC TRICKS OF SOUND


Singing is a unique process; it is two things which usually happen at the same time: words and musical pitches, or musical pitches and words. Over the years, reversals of these two priorities have caused a lot of confusion.

Natural or Learned
   • Some singers learn to sing as though it were an entirely musical process, and they are successful. Others do not need to "learn" singing. They seem to have a natural gift, and they are successful. The success of either approach is possible because singing is a process, which incorporates both music and speech. A process is a series of continuous actions, which brings about a desired result. Since the series of actions is continuous, one may begin a process at almost any given point, provided it is completed (covering all bases and reaching the starting point again). This is the primary reason there are so many different singing techniques. Many of these techniques begin at different points, but if the teacher is a good one, most of the bases will be covered. The only necessary prerequisite for singing is speech. If one is musical, so much the better. Unless there are speech defects or a regional dialect, which must be changed, speaking itself is not usually considered a technique except by actors. Most people think of speech as a natural process. However, it had to be learned in childhood, so it actually is a learned activity or "technique." Keeping in mind that singing is both speech and music, singing techniques can be learned either as music or as an extension of speech.
Music Imitates Speech
    • More often than not, musical phrases we sing imitate natural speech inflections. Good song writers almost always compose pieces which seem to "sing themselves." Some singing teachers appear in many cases to be unaware of this "music of speech." To them, isolated notes and the music itself become more important than the flow of words. Learning to sing using speech inflections is not the most common approach of today's singing teachers. However, many fine musical coaches use this technique to great advantage. The use of speech inflections adds another effective tool for improving range, eliminating register breaks, and singing smoothly (legato). We are not usually conscious of actual musical pitches when we speak. This is because normal speech is inflected words flow naturally into other words, sentences into sentences. Our voices rise and fall according to our moods. We speak loudly or softly, but, most of all, we speak smoothly. We do not jump directly from one pitch to another. We slide through pitches, unaware of the pitches themselves as separate entities. Thus we use the vocal instrument in a learned but seemingly spontaneous act-speech. It is a vocal teacher's task to help the singer make music sound as spontaneous as natural speech patterns. Many singing teachers and choir directors encourage pupils to sing from one pitch to another with absolute accuracy, as though each pitch were disassociated from the next. This is counter-productive for an aspiring soloist or "lead" singer because it inhibits natural speech inflections inherent in the music. (This is one reason solo voices tend to stick out in a choir.)
Magic Tricks
    • A good singer must learn many tricks. The most important is timing. Timing is responsible for the singer's style. Singers who sound "sloppy" have not learned the tricks of singing legato (Italian for "smooth"). Like the choir singer, the choppy sounding singer attempts to sing accurately from note to note. This would be highly commendable if we only sang vocal exercises. However, the singer must sing words and convey emotions. That means dealing with problems caused by the interruption of vowel sounds with consonants (both voiced: with sound-the, zoo, view; and unvoiced: without vocal sound - p, t, s, ch, f, etc.). Singers sound choppy because they are singing digitally (much like an artist presenting a drawing composed of unrelated dots with no lines joining them).
To our ears, singing is more holistic; an analog process - not a digital one. Vocal cord vibrations themselves are digital, but our ears cannot process the information fast enough to hear the separate vibrations (or cycles). Singing must use some sort of speech inflections to sound natural. Digital speech can be heard in the toy "Speak and Spell" or other computers. It is mechanical and does not flow naturally.
     Singers whose voices sound naturally are like magicians; they have learned sleight-of-hand tricks with their voices which disguise the movements from note to note. These movements will then be unnoticeable to listener. Legato singing is really an illusion using several techniques, especially vibrato.
    We cannot see the individual frames of a motion picture-they go by too quickly. We see only the motion, or what appears to be motion. If the speed of the projector is decreased, there comes a point where one can discern individual frames. Computer programs such as Voce Vista are allowing us to see this in action as of 2020 and later. A singer's vibrato operates much in the same manner. Vibrato helps mask or smooth out the movement from one pitch to another. It also helps the singer maintain muscular freedom and decreases the possibility of rigidity in the vocal tract. A vibrato of 4 pulses per second is audible to most people as two separate notes. This is called a wobble. At about 4 1/4 pulses per second, we begin to hear what appears to be a single, oscillating note with vibrato. Generally, a vibrato between five and seven pulses per second is acceptable in any style of music. Anything faster than seven pulses per second is often considered annoying, though some singers have been very successful with this type of sound (called tremolo). This tremolo is found in many French singers and some "country" singers. Smoothing out the movement from one pitch to another higher pitch is desirable. It is difficult for a beginner. The difficulty is due to the interruption of vowel sound by consonants.
     WHEN ANY UNVOICED CONSONANT OCCURS ON A DOWNBEAT, THE FOLLOWING VOWEL MUST ALWAYS BE LATE. Choir singers stay together by singing consonants at the same time. Good soloists do not sing in this manner since this does not permit them to "ebb and flow" naturally, leading the accompanying instrument(s) or conductor in a well-defined musical interpretation. When a vowel occurs after a downbeat (because it follows an unvoiced consonant). There is no way anyone can predict exactly when the vowel sound can begin. As a consequence, the singer's voice will always seem to follow the accompanist or band (orchestra), rather than to lead it. No subtleties can occur, as there is no musical give and take. This is where the magic must take over.
    To make the movement from one note upward to another appear smooth, the singer learns to aim for a pitch slightly flatter (usually between 1/2 tone and one whole tone) than the desired pitch, and then tunes up. (We have confined the discussion to upward movements rather than downward, as these are the more difficult of the two due to increased air pressure and muscle tension of the higher pitch. Downward pitch shifts usually "relax" more naturally.) Because of traditions, our ears accept small degrees of this tuning. What we do not accept is a musical interval which is unintentionally sung sharp and then tuned downward. This is always the mark of an inexperienced singer. This downward tuning sounds unnatural because it does not follow our speech inflections, which rise to a pitch-not above it and back down. When the singer's vibrato occurs during the upward tuning or immediately when the note becomes in tune, the singer has used the classical or "legit" technique or style. The movement, from note to note, sounds smooth to the listener. If there is no vibrato before the note is in tune, the singer has used a pop-singing technique. It is important to remember that we are speaking about a "gliding" movement, which takes only a fraction of a second. If this gliding movement takes too long to execute, it is called scooping. This is usually undesirable, especially in classical music. If the slightly flattened tuning pitch is much lower than one whole tone, the tuning begins to sound sloppy and artificial.
     Opera singers generally strive to maintain a very steady vibrato pattern of about six pulses per second at all times. A totally predictable, beautiful tone is the ideal. Unfortunately, words are often sacrificed for the tonal ideal, though it is not always necessary to do so. Straight tones without vibrato become artistic devices used to convey emotion. A slide upwards is sometimes called a portamento, (although this has come to mean a longer, more pronounced linking of notes than we are discussing here). The operatic (classical and/or legit) tuning upward almost always begins slightly under the desired pitch. The vibrato begins before or as the note becomes in tune. Vibrato has the effect of further disguising the slight mis-tuning. For the "natural" singer, this mis-tuning is done without much conscious effort (probably because it is just like speech). For the less gifted, or the singer with only choir experience, this kind of tuning can be difficult to achieve. Some teachers tell their students to sing the consonant before the beat. For a novice, this is difficult because it does not feel natural to sing ahead of or "outside" the beat. However, that is the trick.
    Sensitive conductors and musicians always make allowances for these tunings. This is the nature of rubato (freedom in tempo). By taking a bit longer to tune a note, the singer indicates a slight retard-not a change of tempo. A slight increase in the speed of the phrase is indicated by tuning the note more quickly. These subtleties take place in a fraction of a second; yet accomplished musicians are always aware of these changes and respond accordingly. Only the insensitive plow ahead, not waiting for the colleague to tune. Since this tuning is subtle and happens so quickly, the audience is only aware of the magical, spontaneous effect.
Singers who are able to maintain very steady vibrato patterns have another possibility open to them when moving from note to note: they can make the move within a single vibrato pulse. This type of tuning is extremely accurate, musical and is a highly desirable technique to cultivate. It's effect is not as dramatic as the slide but for coloratura singing or musical passages which require speed and agility, this technique is often more advantageous.
     Singing technique for the musical theater requires knowledge of some operatic technique as well as knowledge of some pop styles and techniques. The legit singer has no real singing style of his own anymore; it is something between pop and operatic styles. The more stylistic techniques this singer knows, the better he or she will be prepared to enter the musical theater. In many cases, legit singers need as much range as opera singers do; the better he sings, the more opportunities in this field will be open to him or her. Pop music requires a technique somewhat the reverse of that used to sing opera. Tone production, although important, is usually secondary to the words and their meanings. Consequently, vibrato is often partially discarded so that the musical tones sound more like speech. The pop tuning (or slide upward) often begins accurately either one semi-tone or one full tone below the desired pitch. Pop tuning is not so much a slide as it is an accurate mis-tuning. Sometimes this gives the listener the impression that the singer has made a little cry or sob before the note.              Country singers often employ this technique more conspicuously than singers of other styles. Regional and/or ethnic speech patterns also play a large part in determining the style of a singer. However, with the availability of recorded music and what is becoming known as "crossovers" or "fusion" (from one style into another), it is not uncommon to hear singers using styles that are completely alien to their place of origin ("Rocky Raccoon" by the Beatles, "Sail Away" by the Commodores, anything by Randy Newman, anything by Charlie Pride, anything by Teresa Stich-Randall, etc.). Any style can be learned and any "natural style" can be changed.
      Although unaware of it in most cases, many African-American singers make sounds similar to African ancestors. Many African dialects are spoken with very strong, sub-vocalized consonant sounds. These sounds pull the speaker's (singer's) larynx down low as they are made. Besides this, certain African vowel sounds are produced with a high larynx. As a consequence, there is a lot of laryngeal movement up and down during singing. These African speech patterns have unwittingly influenced generations of African-Americans, and the resulting styles of singing often still reflect African laryngeal movements. Vowels in this style usually follow the pattern of "hooty" oo and ee vowels produced with a slightly lowered larynx and bright or brassy ah, uh, eh, ay, and aa (as in cat) vowels produced with a high larynx. Vibrato in this style, more often than nit, is slowed to four or five pulses per second, and the upward tunings take longer than in other styles. The Country style of singing gets many of its stylistic idiosyncrasies from Scottish and Irish ancestry. Vibrato is usually cultivated. Tremolo is even acceptable. As a rule, laryngeal position is high. The upward tunings are very accurate, vibrato-less moves from the semi-tone or whole tone under the note up to the desired pitch.                        
      Jazz singers usually employ a more instrumental approach to vocalism. Tone color, exact pitch and good intonation as well as excellent rhythm are important. Musical expression and the ability to improvise are also important. The jazz singer's tonal production tends to differ from singer to singer-there is no specific jazz sound. Rhythmic accuracy and vocal flexibility are the most important attributes for the singer of jazz. There are certain types of commercial and/or background music which require singing absolutely in tune. For this reason, vibrato is not employed, and the music is sung in pop style. This kind of ensemble singing is different from choir singing in that totally uniform sound is expected. Any individual voice is subjugated; a perfect blend is the expectation. This style is difficult and requires tremendous concentration because fractional differences in tuning create problems.
     Opera singers often sound out of tune when singing in trios or quartets. They usually are. One cannot tune three or four pitches oscillating at various speeds unless he either stops the oscillations or puts them in phase. Most opera singers are too egotistical about their own "technique" to do either of these things. Two out-of-phase vibratos cannot be tuned accurately. Two or more vibratos which are in phase create a peculiar, but interesting sound, frequently used by contemporary choral composers and certain rock groups: Lygeti, Penderecki, Vanilla Fudge and others. This "in phase" vibrato is basically used for effect.
Most small vocal groups opt for minimum or no vibrato in order to stay in tune. Original or predetermined key signature is a problem facing the classical and musical theater singer which does not often affect the pop singer. When the pop singers uncomfortable with a piece of music in a certain key; he simply changes it into something more comfortable. Usually this is impossible in musicals or opera. The cost of transposing orchestral parts alone is prohibitive, and many composers have a certain vocal sound in mind when they write their music. A change of key would alter the sound the composer wanted.
As a result, certain peculiar vowel qualities have become indispensable by-products of having to sing in higher than normal speech ranges. This applies especially to the high range of male operatic singers; they have "operatic" or "covered" sound in their high ranges.
     Bear in mind, the opera singer must still sing UN-AMPLIFIED over a full orchestra in most cases. Consequently, opera singers have developed a particular tonal quality which carries (or projects) over the orchestra (or, more accurately, through the orchestral texture). This kind of tone is said to have "ping," "buzz," "edge," "cut," etc. The more scientifically oriented, call the buzzing harmonics in this tone "the singer's formant." It is a harmonic envelope of overtones between 2,800 and 3,300 cycles per second. There are few strong harmonics in the orchestra texture to compete with the singer's formant in this area of pitch, and even a singer with a relatively small voice, but a well-defined singer's formant, can be heard through a large orchestra. Strangely enough, this particular area of harmonics is also a strong resonance frequency of our ear canals, so we tend to amplify the singer's formant within our own heads, as well. This causes physical stimulation or excitement for the listener. As orchestras and the places they played became larger, accommodating larger audiences, it was the singers who developed these ringing, resonant voices that survived the rigors or singing with (or against) the larger orchestras. When electrical amplification was introduced, the need to produce a ringing sound was left to the singers of acoustic music (opera, concert, choral, musical theater before "Hair"), and optimal singing (loudly but easily) was no longer necessary to be heard. One simply cranked up the volume on the amplifier. New styles of singing quickly became popular as they tended to sound more like "natural" speech than the ringing operatic sound.
     However, the singer's formant is till the hallmark of healthy, well-produced voice. Combined with a good, controllable vibrato pattern, a singer will have strength and flexibility in the same instrument. (He will also stimulate our ear canals!) Many producers or recording engineers (especially sound mixers on the road with rock bands) turn down the 3,000-hertz area on their equalizers in order to "mellow out" the sound of the vocalist. This can create problems for the vocalist who cannot understand why he cannot hear his voice. In most cases, the singer's formant or harmonic area in the 3,000-hertz area will be missing or have too little amplitude. Boosting this area on the vocalist's monitor speakers will keep him in better health and less likely to get "Vegas throat," nodules, or other throat problems.
A singer with a ringing voice is fortunate. If the ringing is bothersome, adding a little more breath or lowering the larynx slightly can modify the tone. Good health and good singing techniques are necessary for vocal longevity and a fulfilling career. The "magic tricks" of vocal style are keys which will open the doors of artistry for any singer who wishes to broaden his horizons and communicate with an audience.
                                                         

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